Can Chinese Language Learning Reinforce English Supremacy?

Wei Duan — Sat, 23 May 2020 00:56:47 +0000

Wei Duan introduces herself to a group of Bangladeshi students at Yunnan University

As a postgraduate student at Yunnan University in Southwest China, I have been conducting a longitudinal ethnography with a group of international students from Bangladesh since their arrival at my university in 2018. While receiving Putonghua-mediated courses, many of my participants complain that they do not see their identities as Chinese language learners depicted in their textbooks. Their exposure to Chinese language textbooks does not expand their intercultural communication capacity but reduces them into reproducing stereotypes.

How is that possible? One of the reasons relates to the representation of interlocutors’ cultural elements in Chinese textbooks, as I found in my research.

The selected data for investigation of Chinese language textbooks are the eight textbooks of the Boya series including four levels: Elementary I/II, Quasi-intermediate I/II, Intermediate I/II, and Advanced I/II. The reasons for selecting this series are that Boya textbooks are the main materials for Bangladeshi students learning Chinese at my university. These textbooks have been published by Peking University Press and were approved by China’s national Eleventh Five-year Plan for general higher education.

Despite their thoroughly Chinese identity, an investigation of the linguistic and cultural representations of the imagined Chinese language learners in these textbooks reveals surprisingly Anglo-centric perspectives on human diversity.

International students with innate English proficiency

One of these Anglo-centric assumptions about Chinese language learners is that they naturally have English language proficiency.

Among eight Boya textbooks, there are 69 units in total and each unit consists of a Chinese reading passage with more than 30 lists of words for explanation. Almost all of the Chinese words listed are matched with English definitions. The frequency of using English as equivalent translation for Chinese words and Chinese grammatical knowledge is quite intense for the elementary level I and II. For example, the phonological knowledge of Chinese language is illustrated with English translation: “汉语的音节由三部分组成：声母、韵母和声调。声调不同，意义就可能不一样” (Among the components of a Chinese syllable, there is tone besides the initial and the final. Syllables with same initials and finals but in different tones usually have different meanings) (Elementary I, p. 1).

Examples such as these are obviously informed by the assumption that international students learning Chinese can refer to English as help if they find Chinese words difficult to understand. However, this assumption is questionable and not borne out by the reality that not all international students are proficient in English.

What further problematizes such English translations is their redundancy and low quality. When international students move to intermediate and advanced levels, they are assumed to be able to understand the basic terms but need additional help in culture-loaded words such as “宝剑” and “内涵”. However, these two words have been mistranslated into “double-edged sword” and “intention” respectively on p. 79 from Intermediate II and p. 45 from Advanced I. In reality, “宝剑” is best translated simply as “sword”. It refers to a traditional hand sword used as a weapon. “内涵” is used to describe someone’s quality or cultural knowledge of a certain practice. It has numerous English translations, including “attribute”, “connotation”, and “inner quality”.

English as panacea in China

Apart from the overwhelming coverage of English translation, English is constructed as a panacea in China: English is presented as the key to solving intercultural communication problems, finding a profitable job, and establishing social status. This is illustrated in the following example, a sample dialogue between a Chinese restaurant owner and international students at a Chinese restaurant in China.

有一天，我们四个刚来中国的老外去饭馆吃饭。点菜的时候碰到了麻烦：我们不认识菜单上那些奇奇怪怪的菜的名字。老板想了不少办法，希望我们能明白这些菜是什么。他一边做着奇怪的动作，一边在桌子上画画。他重复了好几遍，可我们还是猜不出他的意思。这时，一个中国姑娘在旁边说话了：“老板，很多老外不吃鸭头，也不吃猪心、猪肚。”她又用英语解释给我们听。听了她的解释，再想想老板的动作，我们都笑了。我们上了来北京后最有用的一堂课，记住了“心”“肝”“肚”“下水”。

One day, we four newcomers went to a Chinese restaurant. We had some trouble ordering dishes because we didn’t know the odd names on the menu. The owner tried several ways to make us understand what dishes they were. He was drawing pictures on the table while doing weird actions. He repeated several times, but we still couldn’t get his meaning. At this moment, a Chinese girl said to the owner, “many foreigners don’t eat duck heads, pig hearts or stomach.” Then she explained to us in English. Hearing her explanation and recalling the funny actions of the owner, we all laughed. This was the most useful lesson we had when we first arrived in Beijing. We remembered the words for “heart”, “liver”, “belly” and “meatloaf” in Chinese. (Quasi-intermediate I, p. 32, my translation)

The above excerpt seems to convey a delightful tone in understanding Chinese culture. However, a close examination of the excerpt indicates the unequal and hierarchical relation. First of all, the Chinese restaurant owner turns out to be incompetent and powerless in front of a group of newly arrived international students in Beijing, the capital city of China. Instead of using Putonghua, the lingua franca in China or turning to any translation apps, it is the Chinese restaurant owner who has to make all the effort to make himself understood by using “weird” and “funny” actions. Second, the newly arrived international students seem to be the norm-givers in judging what to eat, what is “odd” and “weird”, and how others are supposed to behave when any intercultural communication problems arise. The efforts made by the restaurant owner are not appreciated but considered as laughing stock for fun. Thirdly, it is English that comes to the rescue and helps overcome the supposed embarrassment of the Chinese restaurant owner doing business in China.

The effortless experiences that the Chinese language learners represented in the textbooks have in China is often associated with constructing “laowai” (foreigners) as desirable speaker of English in China,

在大城市，能说英语的人太多。在北京，连出租车司机也能说英语。很多时候你刚说出“你好”，好学的中国人就会马上说起英语来。由于你的汉语不如他们的英语流利，所以常常是他们说，你听。

In big cities, many people can speak English. In Beijing, even taxi drivers can speak English. Many times when you begin to say “Hello” in Chinese, studious Chinese will immediately talk with you in English. As your Chinese is not as fluent as their English, it is you who listen and them who speak. (Quasi-intermediate II, p. 32, my translation)

English is also constructed in Chinese language textbooks as desirable capital for getting a profitable job and upgrading social status.

汽车杂志》诚聘记者2名：汽车专业、中文专业或其他相关专业大学本科以上，英语 6级 425分以上或托福 500 分以上。

“Automobile Magazine” is looking for two journalists with majors in Automotive Studies or Chinese or other related subjects with Bachelor degree or above. The applicants should provide their English certificates either with more than 425 scores in CET 6 or more than 500 in TOFEL. (Quasi-intermediate II, p. 62, my translation)

王大伟的简历：在美国上大学，在英国读研究生，在中国学汉语，在美国 IBM 公司做工程师，香港 IBM 公司经理，上海大学教授，北京大学教授。

Wang Dawei’s CV: undergraduate study in the USA, postgraduate in UK, learning Chinese language in China; an engineer in the American IBM company, a manager in Hong Kong IBM company, professor in Shanghai University and Peking University. (Quasi-intermediate I, p. 206, my translation)

The USA as source of reference

When non-Chinese cultures and identities are referenced in the eight Boya Chinese language textbooks, USA-related cultural practices and figures predominate and they always are presented in a positive light. Statements like “美国人……” (American people are …) or “美国……” (the USA is …) are ubiquitous throughout the textbooks. If the topic is about self-introduction, American people are definitely included in the content. If it is about geography, the USA, or US states and cities such as California or New York are chosen as example for comparison. With other social issues like education, festivals, food or the economy, the USA is the ever-present reference point in the textbooks.

The USA not only predominates quantitatively but is also constructed as a desirable way of living. One of the highly valued qualities is that the USA is constructed as the best destination for learning English. “我想学习英语， 我一定要去美国” (I want to learn English. I must go to the USA) (Elementary I, p. 180). Besides, the USA is reproduced as the most developed and most powerful country. For instance, on p. 105 from textbook Advanced II, the USA is described as “世界最发达国家” (the most developed country in the world); on p. 167 from textbook Intermediate I: “在今天的世界舞台上，美国扮演着非常重要的角色” (The United States plays a very important role throughout the world today). Apart from that, American people are represented as successful, innovative and flexible.

比尔盖茨20岁有了自己的公司，开始做微软老板

Bill Gates had his own company at the age of 20 and has became the boss of Microsoft. (Intermediate I, p. 112, my translation)

Other American figures such as Olympic athletes and the founder of Disney are also positively represented in these Chinese language textbooks, to name only a few.

工作时是医院的大夫还是公司老板，一到球场美国人就会完全变成另一个人。他们会身 穿公牛队服，脚上穿着200美元一双的耐克运动鞋，把自己当作一个篮球运动员，完全 和他们本来的身份不同。

They might be hospital doctors or company owners. As long as American people go to a basketball match, they will wear Bull uniform and Nike shoes worth US$200 and make themselves look like basketball players, totally different from who they are. (Quasi-intermediate I, p. 75, my translation)

Wei Duan celebrates the successful defense of her thesis together with her supervisor Dr Li Jia

Where does the ubiquity of English leave Bangladeshi Chinese language learners?

As one of my Bangladeshi friends complained: “My country has been colonized by Britain for over 200 years. I used to think I could escape from English control when I migrated to China, but you see what I’ve learned here? All about America!”

My friend has good reason to point out the Americanized orientation in China as exemplified in the Boya Chinese language textbooks. They construct a world where English and the USA are on top, Chinese and China are subordinate, and other languages and countries simply don’t exist. As such, these Chinese language textbooks surprisingly replicate English monolingual ways of seeing a multilingual world (Piller, 2016).

This erasure not only frustrates and denies international students of non-English backgrounds but also limits the potential of Chinese language learning as bridging China to the world. It is high time that a more inclusive approach should be adopted in Chinese language textbooks targeting international students of diverse backgrounds.

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